Natural Sciences
What does it mean for a discipline to be a science? Is there just one scientific method? Should there be ethical constraints on the pursuit of scientific knowledge?
The natural sciences seek to discover laws of nature—regularities in the natural world. These are often causal relationships of the form “if X happens then Y will be the result”. This description implies that there is an attempt to produce a system of knowledge that is independent of human agency. Whether this is indeed possible is a matter of debate.
The methods of the natural sciences based on observation of the world as a means of testing hypotheses about it are designed to reduce the effects of human desires, expectations and preferences, in other words they are considered objective. In this sense, the natural sciences emphasize the role of empirical inquiry: scientific knowledge must be able to withstand the test of experience and experiment.
One interesting area of discussion is what differentiates the scientific from the non-scientific. Many would suggest that it is the methods used in science. It is therefore interesting to consider what it is about these methods that mean that the knowledge they generate is often regarded as more reliable than those employed by other AOKs.
The natural sciences seek to discover laws of nature—regularities in the natural world. These are often causal relationships of the form “if X happens then Y will be the result”. This description implies that there is an attempt to produce a system of knowledge that is independent of human agency. Whether this is indeed possible is a matter of debate.
The methods of the natural sciences based on observation of the world as a means of testing hypotheses about it are designed to reduce the effects of human desires, expectations and preferences, in other words they are considered objective. In this sense, the natural sciences emphasize the role of empirical inquiry: scientific knowledge must be able to withstand the test of experience and experiment.
One interesting area of discussion is what differentiates the scientific from the non-scientific. Many would suggest that it is the methods used in science. It is therefore interesting to consider what it is about these methods that mean that the knowledge they generate is often regarded as more reliable than those employed by other AOKs.
Human Sciences
To what extent are the human sciences reliable? Can human behaviour be subject to laws in the same way as the material world? What constitutes good evidence in the human sciences?
In TOK , the term “human sciences” includes many of the subjects in group 3 (individuals and societies) in the Diploma Programme. In simple terms, the human sciences study the reality of being human. More specifically, the human sciences study the social, cultural and biological aspects of human existence. If we add the study of human behaviour to this definition then the Diploma Programme offerings cover a range of human sciences including psychology, social and cultural anthropology, economics and geography.
A fundamental difference between human sciences and natural sciences is in the interpretation of the word “science”. The human sciences might be classified as science because they use the scientific method to test the validity and reliability of hypotheses. However, unlike the natural sciences, the phenomena they try to explain might not possess hard and fast laws that admit no exceptions. They might therefore resort to statistical methods to establish their findings, producing knowledge that is less reliable in terms of issuing predictions.
In TOK , the term “human sciences” includes many of the subjects in group 3 (individuals and societies) in the Diploma Programme. In simple terms, the human sciences study the reality of being human. More specifically, the human sciences study the social, cultural and biological aspects of human existence. If we add the study of human behaviour to this definition then the Diploma Programme offerings cover a range of human sciences including psychology, social and cultural anthropology, economics and geography.
A fundamental difference between human sciences and natural sciences is in the interpretation of the word “science”. The human sciences might be classified as science because they use the scientific method to test the validity and reliability of hypotheses. However, unlike the natural sciences, the phenomena they try to explain might not possess hard and fast laws that admit no exceptions. They might therefore resort to statistical methods to establish their findings, producing knowledge that is less reliable in terms of issuing predictions.
The arts
How can the subjective viewpoint of an individual contribute to knowledge in the arts? On what basis can the merit of a work of art be judged? Is there any point in discussing the arts—should we not simply experience them?
“The arts” is a collective term that encompasses the creative productions of humans and encompasses the visual arts, the performing arts and the literary arts. The arts explore the experience and reality of being human and are an essential element of culture.
The arts could be thought of as creating a bridge between personal knowledge and shared knowledge. Many of them are collaborative. They use emotion as a currency to generate significance at a personal level but reason provides a restrictive framework necessary for the creation of meaning: artworks have their own inner logic. Some regard the arts as having an extra-artistic cognitive function, that they have a message about man’s place in the world which might have social or political implications. For example, there might be a case for supposing that the arts have an important function as a medium for social criticism and transformation. In any case, there is a widespread belief that the arts have a higher purpose to educate by encouraging introspection and sometimes making us think about how we should live our lives.
“The arts” is a collective term that encompasses the creative productions of humans and encompasses the visual arts, the performing arts and the literary arts. The arts explore the experience and reality of being human and are an essential element of culture.
The arts could be thought of as creating a bridge between personal knowledge and shared knowledge. Many of them are collaborative. They use emotion as a currency to generate significance at a personal level but reason provides a restrictive framework necessary for the creation of meaning: artworks have their own inner logic. Some regard the arts as having an extra-artistic cognitive function, that they have a message about man’s place in the world which might have social or political implications. For example, there might be a case for supposing that the arts have an important function as a medium for social criticism and transformation. In any case, there is a widespread belief that the arts have a higher purpose to educate by encouraging introspection and sometimes making us think about how we should live our lives.
Ethics
Is there such a thing as moral knowledge? Does the rightness or wrongness of an action depend on the situation? Are all moral opinions equally valid? Is there such a thing as a moral fact?
One thing often said to distinguish humans from other animals is morality. A key question in ethical discussions in TOK is therefore whether we can really know whether something is moral. What is peculiar about moral values is that they seem to embody obligations for action.
An example of a key area of discussion in ethics is the issue of moral rules. There is disagreement about whether being moral is about following rules, not least because some would question whether moral rules really exist at all. There is also debate about whether moral rules should ever be broken, and if so, in what circumstances. Other key areas of discussion include the issue of whether humans are essentially altruistic or selfish, or whether the consequences of, or motivation for, an action is the location of moral value.
Take the morality test!
One thing often said to distinguish humans from other animals is morality. A key question in ethical discussions in TOK is therefore whether we can really know whether something is moral. What is peculiar about moral values is that they seem to embody obligations for action.
An example of a key area of discussion in ethics is the issue of moral rules. There is disagreement about whether being moral is about following rules, not least because some would question whether moral rules really exist at all. There is also debate about whether moral rules should ever be broken, and if so, in what circumstances. Other key areas of discussion include the issue of whether humans are essentially altruistic or selfish, or whether the consequences of, or motivation for, an action is the location of moral value.
Take the morality test!
History
What is unique about the methodology of history? Is eyewitness testimony a reliable source of evidence? How do we decide which events are historically significant?
History is an area of knowledge that studies the recorded past. It raises knowledge questions such as whether it is possible to talk meaningfully about a historical fact and what such a fact might be, or how far we can speak with certainty about anything in the past. Studying history also deepens our understanding of human behaviour, as reflecting on the past can help us to make sense of the present.
Documentary evidence plays an important role in history, which raises questions about the basis for judgments of reliability of that evidence. The individual historian also plays an important role in history and in the 20th century there was much debate over whether historical facts exist independently of historians. Some argue that there is always a subjective element in historical writing because historians are influenced by the historical and social environment in which they are writing and this unavoidably affects their selection and interpretation of evidence.
History is an area of knowledge that studies the recorded past. It raises knowledge questions such as whether it is possible to talk meaningfully about a historical fact and what such a fact might be, or how far we can speak with certainty about anything in the past. Studying history also deepens our understanding of human behaviour, as reflecting on the past can help us to make sense of the present.
Documentary evidence plays an important role in history, which raises questions about the basis for judgments of reliability of that evidence. The individual historian also plays an important role in history and in the 20th century there was much debate over whether historical facts exist independently of historians. Some argue that there is always a subjective element in historical writing because historians are influenced by the historical and social environment in which they are writing and this unavoidably affects their selection and interpretation of evidence.
Mathematics
Is there a distinction between truth and certainty in mathematics? Is mathematics independent of culture? Is mathematics discovered or invented?
Mathematics is founded on a set of more or less universally accepted definitions and basic assumptions. It proceeds from a system of axioms using deductive reasoning to prove theorems or mathematical truths. These have a degree of certainty unmatched by any other area of knowledge, making it excellent raw material for study in TOK.
Despite, or rather because of, the strict confines of mathematical logic, mathematics is an enormously creative subject, asking of its practitioners great leaps of the imagination. Pure mathematics requires no prior sense perception at the start of inquiry but the application of mathematics to real-world situations requires techniques such as those used in the natural and human sciences. Indeed, most research in the natural and human sciences is underpinned by mathematics. There are also often close links between mathematics and the arts where formal requirements for harmony or symmetry impose mathematical structures on a work.
Mathematics is founded on a set of more or less universally accepted definitions and basic assumptions. It proceeds from a system of axioms using deductive reasoning to prove theorems or mathematical truths. These have a degree of certainty unmatched by any other area of knowledge, making it excellent raw material for study in TOK.
Despite, or rather because of, the strict confines of mathematical logic, mathematics is an enormously creative subject, asking of its practitioners great leaps of the imagination. Pure mathematics requires no prior sense perception at the start of inquiry but the application of mathematics to real-world situations requires techniques such as those used in the natural and human sciences. Indeed, most research in the natural and human sciences is underpinned by mathematics. There are also often close links between mathematics and the arts where formal requirements for harmony or symmetry impose mathematical structures on a work.